Intergroup Emotions Theory (IET)

We (Eliot Smith, Indiana University and Diane Mackie, UC, Santa Barbara) developed Intergroup Emotions Theory (IET) to show that intergroup relations can best be understood in terms of the motivating forces elicited by emotions that group members feel about their own and other groups. We argue that self-categorization determines these emotional responses, especially for highly identified group members, and that those emotions then determine the way groups behave. IET’s emphasis on social emotions in intergroup relations is provocative in a number of ways: you can learn more about IET in these selected readings, and more about our current programs of research in the selected readings below:

Mackie, D. M., Maitner, A.T., & Smith, E.R. (in press). Intergroup Emotion Theory. In T.D. Nelson (Ed.) Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. Erlbaum.

Mackie, D.M., Smith, E.R. & Ray, D.G. (2008). Intergroup emotions and intergroup relations. Personality and Social Psychology Compass, 2, 1866-1880.

Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (2008) Intergroup Emotions. In M. Lewis, J. Haviland-Jones, & L. Feldman Barrett (Eds), Handbook of Emotions (3rd Edition, pp. 428-439). New York: Guilford Press.

Antecedents of intergroup emotions

According to IET, people experience different emotions depending on whether they see themselves as unique individuals or members of a group, and they experience different emotions when thinking about themselves as members of different groups. Individuals differ in their identification with any particular ingroup and thus they differ in their experience of intergroup emotions. Intergroup emotions are shaped by intergroup appraisals, the very different ways in which groups see the world, and they come, through emotional self-stereotyping, to be part and parcel of group membership itself.

Smith, E.R., Seger, C. R., & Mackie, D.M. (2007) Can emotions be truly group level? Evidence for four conceptual criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 431-446.

Seger, C., R., Smith, E.R., Kinias, Z., Mackie, D.M. (in press). Knowing how they feel: Predicting emotions felt by outgroups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.

The nature of intergroup emotions

IET assumes that intergroup emotions can be acute or chronic, and can be directed at any object or event that has relevance for group well-being. We also assume that emotions felt on behalf of the group have physiological and processing consequences just as individually-experienced emotions do.

Rydell, R.J., Mackie, D.M., Maitner, A.T., Claypool, H.M., Ryan, M.J., Smith, E.R. (2008). Arousal, processing, and risk taking: Consequences of Intergroup Anger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1141-1152.

Intergroup emotions and behavior

By far the most important consequence of intergroup emotions is that specific intergroup emotions produce specific action tendencies. Because intergroup emotions are group-level, intergroup emotions presumably have a privileged relationship with group-based behaviors. In addition, intergroup emotions regulate intergroup behavior, just as individual emotions regulate individual behavior.

Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2007). Antecedents and consequences of satisfaction and guilt following ingroup aggression. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 225-239.

Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2006). Evidence for the regulatory function of intergroup emotion: Implementing and impeding intergroup behavioral intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 720-726.

Intergroup emotions and prejudice

Understanding intergroup emotions also suggests strategies to help reduce prejudice. For example, the positive benefit of intergroup contact derives not from learning about outgroups but from coming to feel particular emotions toward them. IET also suggests that changing perceivers’ salient group memberships should change emotions, and perhaps prejudice toward outgroups. If so, interventions like cross categorization that rely on making different group memberships salient might also gain their effectiveness from changes in intergroup emotions.

Ray, D.G., Mackie, D.M., Rydell, R.J., Smith, E.R. (2008) Changing categorization of self can change emotions about outgroups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1210-1213.

Miller, D.A., Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (2004). Effects of intergroup contact and political predispositions on prejudice: Role of Intergroup Emotions. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7, 221-237.

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