1. Guidelines for Good Tests
1. Cover important material--facts, definitions, comprehension, analysis, applications. Trivial items result in trivial studying and learning.
2. Strive for proportional representation--make sure lectures, readings, and the key elements of the course are measured without too much emphasis on any one area.
3. Items should be independent--Do not give away answers via information in other questions. Independence maximizes breadth of coverage.
4. Write simply and clearly--measure their knowledge of material, not vocabulary or "mind reading." Tricky or ambiguous questions create error, frustration, and compound biases related to language and disability.
5. Clearly specify what type of response is sought--how long or short an answer is sought? Should they show their work? Do you want description? comparisons? application? evaluation? Who's opinion do you want (book, lecture, their own)?
6. Good items and therefore good tests take time to write--give yourself enough time to evaluate items after a day or two. Revise, edit, and ask others to read before administering.
7. Good tests have high degrees of reliability and validity--Reliability refers to the extent to which measurement is consistent; validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it should. For more information on reliability and validity, see Brown, F. G., (1983). Principles of Educational and Psychological Testing, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Item Formats
1. Multiple-Choice
   1. Advantages--easy to score; possible to cover broad range of knowledge in limited time
   2. Disadvantages--individual differences in skill at such items equals bias; measure recognition rather than recall; more likely to measure recognition of content than integration or application of information, hard to write good items
2. True/False
   1. Advantages--same as multiple-choice
   2. Disadvantages--same as multiple-choice. In addition, often too "black & white" or clear cut for subject matter (psychology often is not so clear cut); random guessing equals 50% correct
3. Short Answer and Completion Items
   1. Advantages--requires recall of ideas; can measure integration and application more easily than multiple-choice; takes less time per item than essays (advantage of broader sampling)
   2. Disadvantages--moderately time consuming; less breadth of sampling than multiple-choice; consistent scoring is difficult and time consuming
4. Essay Questions
   1. Advantages--best measure of organizing, integrating, and evaluating information; can approximate application of knowledge, easy to write
   2. Disadvantages--time consuming (reduces breadth of sampling); scoring is very time consuming; scoring consistently is very hard; writing skill and speed are often major sources of bias
3. Writing Exam Questions
1. Writing Multiple-Choice Items
1. Stem should present the problem, including qualifying statements
2. There should be only one correct answer
3. Distractors should be plausible but clearly incorrect
4. Avoid negative wording (especially double negatives)
5. Use "all of the above," "none of the above" and "A and B" sparingly
6. When item is controversial, indicate whose opinion is sought
7. Avoid irrelevant cues to correct answer (length, grammar)
8. Items should test one central idea or concept
9. Watch out for patterns in alternatives (overuse of "C" as correct answer)
10. Choose appropriate level of difficulty--best to write item figuring 50%-75% of students would choose the correct answer
11. Assure even coverage of material and types of knowledge
2. Writing True-False Items
1. Choose words with precise, definite meanings
2. Avoid tricks and trivia
3. Avoid "always" and "never" (easy clues)
4. Follow guidelines for multiple choice
3. Writing Matching Items
1. Keep each matching set short (no more than 5 stimuli/responses)
2. Each item should have only one correct match
3. Use longer items as stimuli, shorter as responses
4. Arrange responses in alphabetical or logical order
4. Writing Short Answer and Completion Items
1. Phrase item to elicit one correct answer (makes scoring possible)
2. Clearly indicate type of answer you want
3. Do not use more than two blanks per completion item
4. Try to place blank near the end of a completion item
5. Make a key before scoring
6. Periodically re-score early tests to detect shifting criteria
5. Writing Essay Questions
1. Limit questions to vitally important material
2. Clearly define task, scope, and directions for a "good" answer
3. Allow time for thought
4. Use multiple medium-length essays rather than one long one
5. Use questions that have a limited number of good answers
6. Allow choice between alternatives (e.g., "answer 3 of the 4 questions")
7. Make a key before scoring
8. Periodically re-score early tests to detect shifting criteria

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